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DIXIE'S CENSORED SUBJECT BLACK SLAVEOWNERS By Robert M. Grooms © 1997 (THIS ARTICLE IS COPYRIGHTED AND IS PROVIDED HERE COURTESY OF THE BARNES REVIEW): In an 1856 letter to his wife Mary Custis Lee, called slavery 'a moral and political evil.' Yet he concluded that black slaves were immeasurably better off here than in Africa, morally, socially and physically. The fact is large numbers of free Negroes owned black slaves; in fact, in numbers disproportionate to their representation in society at large.

In 1860 only a small minority of whites owned slaves. According to the U.S. Census report for that last year before the Civil War, there were nearly 27 million whites in the country. Some eight million of them lived in the slaveholding states. The census also determined that there were fewer than 385,000 individuals who owned slaves (1). Even if all slaveholders had been white, that would amount to only 1.4 percent of whites in the country (or 4.8 percent of southern whites owning one or more slaves). In the rare instances when the ownership of slaves by free Negroes is acknowledged in the history books, justification centers on the claim that black slave masters were simply individuals who purchased the freedom of a spouse or child from a white slaveholder and had been unable to legally manumit them.

Although this did indeed happen at times, it is a misrepresentation of the majority of instances, one which is debunked by records of the period on blacks who owned slaves. These include individuals such as Justus Angel and Mistress L. Horry, of Colleton District, South Carolina, who each owned 84 slaves in 1830. In fact, in 1830 a fourth of the free Negro slave masters in South Carolina owned 10 or more slaves; eight owning 30 or more (2).

According to federal census reports, on June 1, 1860 there were nearly 4.5 million Negroes in the United States, with fewer than four million of them living in the southern slaveholding states. Of the blacks residing in the South, 261,988 were not slaves. Of this number, 10,689 lived in New Orleans. The country's leading African American historian, Duke University professor John Hope Franklin, records that in New Orleans over 3,000 free Negroes owned slaves, or 28 percent of the free Negroes in that city. To return to the census figures quoted above, this 28 percent is certainly impressive when compared to less than 1.4 percent of all American whites and less than 4.8 percent of southern whites.

The statistics show that, when free, blacks disproportionately became slave masters. The majority of slaveholders, white and black, owned only one to five slaves. More often than not, and contrary to a century and a half of bullwhips-on-tortured-backs propaganda, black and white masters worked and ate alongside their charges; be it in house, field or workshop. The few individuals who owned 50 or more slaves were confined to the top one percent, and have been defined as slave magnates.

In 1860 there were at least six Negroes in Louisiana who owned 65 or more slaves The largest number, 152 slaves, were owned by the widow C. Richards and her son P.C. Richards, who owned a large sugar cane plantation. Another Negro slave magnate in Louisiana, with over 100 slaves, was Antoine Dubuclet, a sugar planter whose estate was valued at (in 1860 dollars) $264,000 (3). That year, the mean wealth of southern white men was $3,978 (4). In Charleston, in 1860 125 free Negroes owned slaves; six of them owning 10 or more.

Of the $1.5 million in taxable property owned by free Negroes in Charleston, more than $300,000 represented slave holdings (5). In North Carolina 69 free Negroes were slave owners (6). In 1860 William Ellison was South Carolina's largest Negro slaveowner. In, authors Michael P. Johnson and James L.

Roak write a sympathetic account of Ellison's life. From Ellison's birth as a slave to his death at 71, the authors attempt to provide justification, based on their own speculation, as to why a former slave would become a magnate slave master. At birth he was given the name April. A common practice among slaves of the period was to name a child after the day or month of his or her birth. Between 1800 and 1802 April was purchased by a white slave-owner named William Ellison.

Apprenticed at 12, he was taught the trades of carpentry, blacksmithing and machining, as well as how to read, write, cipher and do basic bookkeeping. On June 8, 1816, William Ellison appeared before a magistrate (with five local freeholders as supporting witnesses) to gain permission to free April, now 26 years of age. In 1800 the South Carolina legislature had set out in detail the procedures for manumission. To end the practice of freeing unruly slaves of 'bad or depraved' character and those who 'from age or infirmity' were incapacitated, the state required that an owner testify under oath to the good character of the slave he sought to free. Also required was evidence of the slave's 'ability to gain a livelihood in an honest way.' Although lawmakers of the time could not envision the incredibly vast public welfare structures of a later age, these stipulations became law in order to prevent slaveholders from freeing individuals who would become a burden on the general public. Interestingly, considering today's accounts of life under slavery, authors Johnson and Roak report instances where free Negroes petitioned to be allowed to become slaves; this because they were unable to support themselves.

(University Press of Virginia-1995) was written by Ervin L. Jordan Jr., an African-American and assistant professor and associate curator of the Special Collections Department, University of Virginia library. He wrote: 'One of the more curious aspects of the free black existence in Virginia was their ownership of slaves. Black slave masters owned members of their family and freed them in their wills.

Free blacks were encouraged to sell themselves into slavery and had the right to choose their owner through a lengthy court procedure.' In 1816, shortly after his manumission, April moved to Stateburg. Initially he hired slave workers from local owners. When in 1817 he built a gin for Judge Thomas Watries, he credited the judge nine dollars 'for hire of carpenter George for 12 days.' By 1820 he had purchased two adult males to work in his shop (7). In fewer than four years after being freed, April demonstrated that he had no problem perpetuating an institution he had been released from. He also achieved greater monetary success than most white people of the period.

On June 20, 1820, April appeared in the Sumter District courthouse in Sumterville. Described in court papers submitted by his attorney as a 'freed yellow man of about 29 years of age,' he requested a name change because it 'would yet greatly advance his interest as a tradesman.' A new name would also 'save him and his children from degradation and contempt which the minds of some do and will attach to the name April.' Because 'of the kindness' of his former master and as a 'Mark of gratitude and respect for him' April asked that his name be changed to William Ellison.

His request was granted. In time the black Ellison family joined the predominantly white Episcopalian church. On August 6, 1824 he was allowed to put a family bench on the first floor, among those of the wealthy white families. Other blacks, free and slave, and poor whites sat in the balcony. Another wealthy Negro family would later join the first floor worshippers. Between 1822 and the mid-1840s, Ellison gradually built a small empire, acquiring slaves in increasing numbers.

He became one of South Carolina's major cotton gin manufacturers, selling his machines as far away as Mississippi. From February 1817 until the War Between the States commenced, his business advertisements appeared regularly in newspapers across the state. These included the Camden Gazette, the Sumter Southern Whig and the Black River Watchman.

Ellison was so successful, due to his utilization of cheap slave labor, that many white competitors went out of business. Such situations discredit impressions that whites dealt only with other whites. Where money was involved, it was apparent that neither Ellison's race or former status were considerations. In his book, Ervin L. Writes that, as the great conflagration of 1861-1865 approached: 'Free Afro-Virginians were a nascent black middle class under siege, but several acquired property before and during the war. Approximately 169 free blacks owned 145,976 acres in the counties of Amelia, Amherst, Isle of Wight, Nansemond, Prince William and Surry, averaging 870 acres each.

Twenty-rune Petersburg blacks each owned property worth $1,000 and continued to purchase more despite the war.' Jordan offers an example: 'Gilbert Hunt, a Richmond ex-slave blacksmith, owned two slaves, a house valued at $1,376, and $500 in other properties at his death in 1863.'

Jordan wrote that 'some free black residents of Hampton and Norfolk owned property of considerable value; 17 black Hamptonians possessed property worth a total of $15,000. Thirty-six black men paid taxes as heads of families in Elizabeth City County and were employed as blacksmiths, bricklayers, fishermen, oystermen and day laborers. In three Norfolk County parishes 160 blacks owned a total of $41,158 in real estate and personal property. The general practice of the period was that plantation owners would buy seed and equip ment on credit and settle their outstanding accounts when the annual cotton crop was sold. Ellison, like all free Negroes, could resort to the courts for enforcement of the terms of contract agreements.

Several times Ellison successfully sued white men for money owed him. In 1838 Ellison purchased on time 54.5 acres adjoining his original acreage from one Stephen D.

He moved into a large home on the property. What made the acquisition notable was that Miller had served in the South Carolina legislature, both in the U.S. House of Representatives and the Senate, and while a resident of Stateburg had been governor of the state. Ellison's next door neighbor was Dr. Anderson, master of 'Borough House, a magnificent 18th Century mansion.

Anderson's son would win fame in the War Between the States as General 'Fighting Dick' Anderson. By 1847 Ellison owned over 350 acres, and more than 900 by 1860. He raised mostly cotton, with a small acreage set aside for cultivating foodstuffs to feed his family and slaves. In 1840 he owned 30 slaves, and by 1860 he owned 63. His sons, who lived in homes on the property, owned an additional nine slaves. They were trained as gin makers by their father (8). They had spent time in Canada, where many wealthy American Negroes of the period sent their children for advanced formal education.

Ellison's sons and daughters married mulattos from Charleston, bringing them to the Ellison plantation to live. In 1860 Ellison greatly underestimated his worth to tax assessors at $65,000. Even using this falsely stated figure, this man who had been a slave 44 years earlier had achieved great financial success. His wealth outdistanced 90 percent of his white neighbors in Sumter District.

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In the entire state, only five percent owned as much real estate as Ellison. His wealth was 15 times greater than that of the state's average for whites. And Ellison owned more slaves than 99 percent of the South's slaveholders. Although a successful businessman and cotton farmer, Ellison's major source of income derived from being a 'slave breeder.' Slave breeding was looked upon with disgust throughout the South, and the laws of most southern states forbade the sale of slaves under the age of 12. In several states it was illegal to sell inherited slaves (9).

Nevertheless, in 1840 Ellison secretly began slave breeding. While there was subsequent investment return in raising and keeping young males, females were not productive workers in his factory or his cotton fields. As a result, except for a few females he raised to become 'breeders,' Ellison sold the female and many of the male children born to his female slaves at an average price of $400. Ellison had a reputation as a harsh master. His slaves were said to be the district's worst fed and clothed. On his property was located a small, windowless building where he would chain his problem slaves. As with the slaves of his white counterparts, occasionally Ellison's slaves ran away.

The historians of Sumter District reported that from time to time Ellison advertised for the return of his runaways. On at least one occasion Ellison hired the services of a slave catcher. According to an account by Robert N. Andrews, a white man who had purchased a small hotel in Stateburg in the 1820s, Ellison hired him to run down 'a valuable slave.

Andrews caught the slave in Belleville, Virginia. He stated: 'I was paid on returning home $77.50 and $74 for expenses.

William Ellison died December 5, 1861. His will stated that his estate should pass into the joint hands of his free daughter and his two surviving sons.

He bequeathed $500 to the slave daughter he had sold. Following in their father's footsteps, the Ellison family actively supported the Confederacy throughout the war.

They converted nearly their entire plantation to the production of corn, fodder, bacon, corn shucks and cotton for the Confederate armies. They paid $5,000 in taxes during the war. They also invested more than $9,000 in Confederate bonds, treasury notes and certificates in addition to the Confederate currency they held. At the end, all this valuable paper became worthless. The younger Ellisons contributed more than farm produce, labor and money to the Confederate cause.

On March 27, 1863 John Wilson Buckner, William Ellison's oldest grandson, enlisted in the 1st South Carolina Artillery. Buckner served in the company of Captains P.P. Galliard and A.H.

Boykin, local white men who knew that Buckner was a Negro. Although it was illegal at the time for a Negro to formally join the Confederate forces, the Ellison family's prestige nullified the law in the minds of Buckner's comrades. Buckner was wounded in action on July 12, 1863. At his funeral in Stateburg in August, 1895 he was praised by his former Confederate officers as being a 'faithful soldier.' Following the war the Ellison family fortune quickly dwindled.

But many former Negro slave magnates quickly took advantage of circumstances and benefited by virtue of their race. For example Antoine Dubuclet, the previously mentioned New Orleans plantation owner who held more than 100 slaves, became Louisiana state treasurer during Reconstruction, a post he held from 1868 to 1877 (10).

A truer picture of the Old South, one never presented by the nation's mind molders, emerges from this account. The American South had been undergoing structural evolutionary changes far, far greater than generations of Americans have been led to believe.

In time, within a relatively short time, the obsolete and economically nonviable institution of slavery would have disappeared. The nation would have been spared awesome traumas from which it would never fully recover. NOTES 1., Raymond Logan and Irving Cohen New York: Houghton and Mifflin, 1970), p.72. 2., Michael P.

Johnson and James L. Roak New York: Norton, 1984), p.64.

3., Gary Mills (Baton Rouge, 1977); Black Masters, p.128. 4., 1850-1870, Lee Soltow (New Haven, 1975), p.85. 5., Appendix, Table 7; p.280. Black Masters, p. Information on the Ellison family was obtained from Black Masters; the number of slaves they owned was gained from U.S.

Census Reports. In 1860 South Carolina had only 21 gin makers; Ellison, his three sons and a grandson account for five of the total. Degler (New York, Macmillan, 1971), p.39;, Joe Gray Taylor (Baton Rouge, 1963), pp. 10., Eric Foner (New York; Harper & Row, 1988), p. An analysis of all aspects and particularly of the commercialism of black slaveowning debunks the myth that black slaveholding was a benevolent institution based on kinship, and explains the transition of black masters from slavery to paid labor.

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Superiority complex? Put the Asur back on top with our. You can read. After something specific? We’ve broken our Dark Elf guide down into the following sections to make it easier for you to find your way around:. Dark Elves Legendary Lords Malekith, Witch King of Naggaroth Malekith is the son of Aenarion the Defender, the High Elves’ first Phoenix King.

Accordingly, he felt he should inherit the throne of Ulthuan, their island paradise, but its princes passed him over to elect Bel Shanaar, the Explorer. Malekith served Bel Shanaar loyally for a while, but eventually tired of it, had him poisoned, and tried to seize the throne for himself. A bitter civil war followed, in the midst of which Malekith stepped into the sacred flames of Asuryan, which anoint each Phoenix King. Contrary to his expectations, they rejected him, scarring him horribly. Eventually he and his followers were driven from Ulthuan to settle in the bleak and frozen land of Naggaroth, where they indulged their hatred, spite, and vanity, becoming the Dark Elves. Malekith has ruled them as their Witch King ever since.

Malekith is skilled in both might and magic, wields a number of powerful magic items, and rides a black dragon named Seraphon into battle. In Total War: Warhammer II, Malekith leads the Naggarond faction.

Here are his unique effects:. Diplomatic relations: +30 with Cult of Pleasure.

Malekith gives a percentage of XP earned to other Lords. Increased chance of loyalty loss for any Lords who attain higher rank than Malekith.

Starts the game with some Black Guard of Naggarond and a Reaper Bolt Thrower Morathi, his mum Aenarion the Defender rescued Morathi, a seemingly innocent elven damsel in distress, from a band of Chaos cultists. Given what happened next, she may have fallen to Chaos shortly thereafter, or may have been their leader all along. Either way, it was Morathi who founded the Cult of Pleasure, an insidious sect dedicated to the Chaos God Slaanesh who ultimately caused the Sundering of the elven race.

The Cult’s influence spread throughout Ulthuan, turning its nobility to indolent hedonism and sparking a civil war. After Morathi’s son by Aenarion, Malekith, was passed over for the throne in favour of Bel Shanaar, Morathi watered the seeds of resentment in his heart until he made an attempt on the throne. She threw her Cult’s weight behind her son, escalating the civil war, but they were ultimately defeated and driven to Naggaroth. Morathi is now a powerful sorceress. She rides the dark pegasus Sulephet into battle and is protected by the favour of the dark gods, rather than, er, conventional armour. In Total War: Warhammer II, she leads the Cult of Pleasure faction. Here are her unique effects:.

Spreads Chaos corruption. Diplomatic relations: +20 with Dark Elves.

Hero action cost: -50%. On turn start, Lords in Morathi’s region have a chance to gain loyalty. Starts the game with some Harpies and a War Hydra Dark Elves Slaves Dark Elves use gold like other races, and they’ll aim to collect Scrolls of Hekarti in order to disrupt Ulthuan’s Vortex (the Elven pantheon is divided into negative and positive aspects, andis the negative aspect of magic). But because they’re not very nice people and don’t like to get their own hands dirty, they have a unique third currency: Slaves. Yes, CA went there, so now we have to as well. You have the option to acquire slaves after battles or when sacking enemy settlements, which seems to be the most lucrative ‘source’. Slaves are distributed around your empire’s provinces.

The more a province has, the more gold its settlements will produce, but if you have too many, public order will suffer. Dark Elf settlements have some buildings that raise a province’s slave capacity, increase their slaves’ gold output, and decrease slaves’ rate of decline (nicer dungeons, I guess).

You can manage slave populations in a new menu, giving provinces high, low, or normal priority as destinations for new captives. This makes for some interesting choices.

Got a province that’s high in public order? Kit it out to support slaves and get raiding, but keep them away from places where the populace is already unhappy. It’s a characterful nudge to stay appropriately violent when playing Dark Elves, as lots of slaves, correctly managed, will result in a supercharged economy. Slaves are also the currency for the Dark Elves’ rites, which you can see above. New to Warhammer II, each race gets four of these campaign-level power moves. Currencies, cooldowns, and unlock conditions are as varied as their effects, but one obvious note to make about the Dark Elf rites is that these are how you’ll recruit Black Arks.

Dark Elves Black Arks In the lore, Black Arks are colossal floating fortresses built on the backs of summoned sea monsters. They’re never seen in the tabletop game for obvious reasons, yet it wouldn’t have felt right for them to be absent from Total War – the new context of a grand strategy game presents intreresting challenges like that. Black Arks are, essentially, mobile settlements; they have their own building trees, ten building slots, and can recruit units to an army of their own.

They can also support nearby armies via the Dread Expansion stance, which projects a sphere of influence – all Dark Elf armies within it get +10% replenishment, and can recruit units directly from the Black Ark. The stance renders the Ark immobile, and slows its own replenishment. Lastly, Black Arks can also provide bombardment support for nearby Dark Elf land battles.

The system is exactly the same as it was in Shogun II: Total War, lead writer Andy Hall says – you can see it in action in. In summary, whenever you fight a battle within range of a Black Ark, you’ll be able to target bombardments much as you would spells. Several types are offered via a menu at the side of the screen, from concentrated fire attacks to wide-ranging splash damage – it’s likely that building upgrades on the Ark will unlock new bombardment types.

Each appears to have three charges, and to be on an eight-second cooldown. Dark Elves Names of Power, Hall also revealed a neat mechanic for Dark Elf characters. “The way Dark Elves name themselves – it’s not hereditary,” he says. “That’s why they’ve got all these cool names like ‘Soulstealer’ and ‘Knifestabber’. You can name your Dark Elves, and you can give them a Noble Name, or a Warrior Name, or – I think – a Sage Name. You then have to perform. You’ve got to live up to the expectation of that name, and if you do, you get these big buffs.” Those three Names of Power are mutually exclusive choices in your Lords’ skill trees, and you’ll be able to pick one when the Lord reaches a certain level.

Martial names buff your character’s combat skills, Revered names buff their army, and Aristocratic names buff either the local province or the faction as a whole on the campaign map. One Aristocratic name we see in confers +8 local public order, and +5% gold income from settlements in all regions. And yet, it seems that these Names of Power can go to your characters’ heads; Hall confirms that “Dark Elves have the same loyalty problems” as the Skaven (though a loyalty meter, like we saw on Skaven Lords, isn’t obvious in the Dark Elf gameplay). Dark Elves Army Roster The Dark Elves have a lot of similar units to their High kin – whether they want to admit it or not – but most have a nastier, more aggressive twist.

For instance, the Black Guard of Naggarond are the harder-hitting counterparts of the Phoenix Guard – though they both share the same role in their respective armies, the Phoenix Guard are more defensive in nature. But the Dark Elves aren’t solelyan angrier mirror of the Asur. They have some monsters and iconic units that are all their own, such as quick-healing Hydras, frenzied Witch Elves and seafaring Black Ark Corsairs. For a full run-down, check out the. Dark Elves Murderous Prowess In battle as the Dark Elves, you’ll notice apurple bar at the top of the screen.

That represents progress towards the ‘Murderous Prowess’ ability, which triggers when enough enemy units die, representing the Dark Elves’ tendency to lapse into an orgy of killing. When Murderous Prowess pops, it grants +25% melee attack, +15 leadership, +25% charge bonus, +20% armour piercing missile damage (if applicable), and +30% vigour. Some units have a higher tier of this ability, called Murderous Mastery, which means they also cause Fear. This is obviously massive, especially the bit about vigour – units are significantly less effective when they’re tired. It should be possible to hold back a deadly spell or a high-impact charge until you’re right on the edge of Murderous Prowess, so as to pop it at a crucial time – you can see this in action in this, where a Black Ark bombardment triggers Murderous Prowess just as a unit of Dark Riders smashes into a group of High Elf archers. That’s a whole flank gone.